Brand Association

BRAND ASSOCIATIONS AND CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS OF VALUE OF PRODUCTS BY NZUKI KITHUNGA PETER UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI PAPER PRESENTED TO cede OF ACADEMIC PUBLICATIONS (SAP) CONTENTS Page 1. background signal nitty-gritty of a grade and Its greatness 2. Theoretical postureing on note connectednesss perceptual Dimensions of scrape Associations patsy Associations and cheer Creation fool Association and nourish Creation Model 3. Measurement of crisscross Associations Less Structured Approaches Structured Approaches 4. investigate in smear Associations tick off computer addresss mark Coun leaven ofOrigin eminence grime Preferences increase Attri merelyes grade Associations and bulls eye Equity 5. review of research in grease Associations Techniques apply Ope judicious Definitions Clarity of Image Brand Association Strength Other Constructs talk over Variables 6. Future Research Directions Theoretical and applicative constructs Techniques Used Multiple Segments Indus trial secures and go 7. References 3 4 9 10 12 14 15 2 1. 0 IntroductionA victorious trademark is the most precious alternative a comp whatever has. In fact, hotshot authority speculates that soft touchs be so valuable that companies depart soon include a statement of mensurate addendum to their proportion sheets to include intangibles such as the nail downtle oftheir makes. Brands atomic bit 18 white plagued as a mood cues to taste, design, qualify, prestige, take to be and so forth. In polar words, consumers associate the apprize of a harvest-home with the disfigurement. For example, the survey of Kodak, Sony, Coca-cola, Toyota and Marlboro is indis ensnargonable. wholeness estimate of the c atomic number 18 for of Coca-cola, the worlds most valuable vane, bewilders it at over $35 billion. How does a antitheticaliate fix c atomic number 18 for to the node? Why do accepted defacementmarks train to a greater extent apprize than otherwis es? Natur solelyy, companies with such brawny labels strive to role those crisscrosss orbiculately ( flourish them). The get of this paper is to review literature on the core railroad ties of reproachs economic consumptiond to state of affairs defects as strategies to wee-wee emulous advantages. 1. 1 Meaning of a print and Its Importance A bell ringer is a distinguishing call off and/or symbol n lamed to identity the goods or run of either hotshot seller or a group of sellers, and to discordentiate those goods or services from those of competitors (Aaker, 1991 Stanton, 1994, and Kotler, 1996). A fall guy olibanum signals to the customer the source ofthe intersection, and protects both the customer and the producer from competitors who would attempt to foresee produces that bulge to be identical. Ancient history provides try of the importance of tarnishs. In those days, names were put on such goods as bricks in differentiate to rank their maker (Farquhar , 1989).It is withal known that trade guilds in knightly Europe consumption up trademarks to assure the customer and provide legal protection to the producer. In the early sixteen-century, Whisky distillers shipped their growths in woody barrels with the name of the producer destroy 3 into the barrel. The name showed the consumer who the maker (brewer) was and prevented the electric switch of cheaper carrefours. In 1835, a deformity of gravel called Old Smuggler was introduced in order to capitalize on the quality record actual by bootleggers who used a special distilling process (Aaker, 1991).Although strike outs film farseeing had a role to play in commerce, it was not until the twentieth century that mark and provoker experience became so central to competitors. In fact, a distinguishing characteristic of redbrick trade has been its focus upon the creation of severalize send associations to accentuate the bases of differentiation. The idea has been to actuate beyond commodities to filthed w ars to reduce the basal of price upon the grease whizzs palms ending. Consumers associate the value of the carrefour with the blot.The shuffle peck let either a positive or a oppose message to a greater extent or less the product to the consumer (Kim and Chung, 1997, p. 361). The profound value of a brand is often based upon special(prenominal) association of a use condition such as heart onslaught prevention washbowl provide a case-to- obtain which bottomland attract customers. Such an association corrects the products core to customers. Brand associations represent bases for purchase decision and for brand loyalty. in that location atomic number 18 a soldiers of accomplishable associations that a securely lowlife lay down in a brand.not all associations request to be construct but rather those that straight off or indirectly yarn-dye consumers get deportment. cross bureau associates (customer earns) be an essential class of associations, but at that rate argon others that clear be important in some contexts (Aaker, p. 114). The pursuit section deals with the brand associations that a upstanding stand build and how they create value to both the impregnable and consumer. 2. Theoretical Framework on Brand Associations 2. 1 Perceptual Dimensions of Brand Associations As tell elsewhere in this paper, brand association is anything that is colligate in memory to a brand (Aaker, p. 09). The association glitter the fact products are used to contain lifestyles whereas other associations reflect societal positions, and professional roles. Still others pull up stakes reflect associations involving product applications, types of people who qualification use the product, stores that cable carry the product, or salespeople who pass over the product or even the rural area of arising. Keller (1998) defines brand associations as in digitational nodes linked to the brand node in memory that contains the meaning of the brand for 4 consumers. These associations include lores of brand quality and attitudes towards the brand.Keller and Aaker both progress to expect that consumer perceptions of brand are multi-dimensional yet more of the dimensions they identify appear to be very(prenominal) similar. The foresee that a good or a service has in the wit of the consumer how it is positioned probably more important to its final success than are its actual characteristics. Marketers try to position their brands so that they are perceived by the consumer to fit a typical niche in the marketplace a niche occupied by no other product (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994) fit in to Aaker (1991) on that point are at least nightspot brand associations.The associations convey either the concept, or the meaning of the product in damage of how it fulfils a customers make. In forthwiths proudly warlike environment a differentive product image is most important. As pro ducts sound more complex and the market place more crowded, consumers rely more on the products image than its actual deputes in qualification purchase decisions. One of the brand associations that a pissed dismiss use in differentiating its product is node realize customer avail refers to the bespeak that is satisfied by a product. For example, cavity control by a toothpaste is a customer benefit.Customer benefit whitethorn be coherent, mental (emotional) benefit, or self- evidenceive benefit. A rational benefit is closely linked to a products attribute and would be part of a rational decision process. A psychological benefit rivals to what popular opinions are engendered when buying and or utilize the brand (Aaker, p. 1 19). An example of a rational benefit for a computer to a consumer would be its ability not to barren work whereas a psychological benefit would be the feeling of being professional. For a car, the emotional benefit would be the feeling of gumsho e when driving it as a beginr of a Volvo car would testify.The self-expressive benefit relates to the ability of a brand to help oneself a consumer to communicate his or her self-image. Since consumers bugger off multiple roles, the consumer has an associated self-concept and a need to express that self-concept. The purchase and use of brands is one way to ftilfil the need for self-expression (Aaker, 1991). He gives the example of a consumer who whitethorn define him/herselfas successful and powerful by driving a Mercedes Benz, 5 ingathering attributes These refer to a products characteristics. Attributes are associated with a products rational benefit.For example, a Volvo cars attribute is durability. Similarly, a shampoos attribute would be its safety to use every day. A trafficker requires to identify an attribute that is important to a major department and not already claimed by a competitor, e. g an attribute that passings something extra (like features or services that offer something better). The appellative of an unmet customer problem send word some periods lead to an attribute previously ignore by competitors (Aaker, p. 115). Indeed, unmet needs are strategically important because they weed represent opportunities for firms that sine qua non to make major moves in the market.Use / application A marketer kitty associate a brand with a particular use or application. For example, a beer can be associated with good friends in a tippy social setting. A airfield of the coffee market revealed that in that location were nine relevant use contexts for coffee (Glen, et al, 1984). User / Customer another(prenominal)(prenominal) way of positioning a brand is to associate it with a type ofsubstance abuser or customer. This involves identifying the brand with its target subdivision. For example, a brand can be associated with those who are arouse in weight control as would be the case of a stark naked drug.Celebrity /Celebritv This is the som eone who endorses a brand. Linking a credit with a brand can transfer associations such as reliability, strength, performance, and so on. The ex feed to which the association can be linked to the celebrity depends on how probable the psyche is perceived by the sense of hearing. Specifically, a source is more persuasive when the audience perceives him or her as highly believable than when perceived s being down(p) in credibility (DeLozier, 1976). In other words, the person need not be credible but it is how the consumers perceive him. life style / somebodyality The brand can be viewed as a person. Like a person, a brand can be perceived as being competent, trustworthy, active, or youthful (Aaker, 1996). A brand constitution whitethorn help communicate a products attribute and thusly contribute to a functional benefit. Similarly, it can help create a self-expressive benefit that becomes a vehicle for the customer to express his or her own individualizedity. Competitors A firm positions its brand exploitation the organizations attributes such as innovation, a drive for quality, and a concern for the environment.A firm can position its brand with obeisance to a competitor. Sometimes it is not important how good customers think a firm is, but how they believe it is better than a given competitor. While this brand association can be accomplished by comparative advertising, it is not usually allowed in some countries (Cateora, 1996). bucolic of Origin One more strategic option that a marketer has is to associate a brand with a untaught. The country of origin has an performance on the markets perception of a product either a positive or a shun perception.Cateora (1996) asserts that a company competing in global markets may manufacture products world-wide and when the customer becomes apprised of the country of origin, thither is the possibility that the place of manufacture will affect product/brand image (p. 349). The influence may be to add credibi lity or to lower it. 2. 2 Brand Association and look on Creation Brand associations are useful to marketers. Marketers use brand associations to differentiate, position, and extend brands, to create positive attitudes and feelings towards brands, and to suggest attributes or benefits of purchasing or using a special brand (Aaker, 1991).However, brand associations are of more use to the customer than the marketer. The way a brand association creates value to the customer will depend on the customers perception of value. For each(prenominal)(prenominal) individual, reality is a totally personal phenomenon, based on that persons needs, wants, and personal experiences. Customers 7 everywhere do to images, myths, and metaphors that help them define their personal identities. then, different customers will perceive reality differently. Indeed, Schiffrnan & Kanuk et al (1996, p. 61) contends that although two individuals may be exposed to the similar stimuli under apparently the sa me conditions, the way they recognize them, select them, gussy up them, and interpret them is a highly individual process based on each persons own needs, values, and expectations. The underlying value of a brand name often is its set of associations its meaning to people. Associations, accord to Aaker (1991) represent the bases for purchase decisions and for brand loyalty. in that location are a host of possible associations and a variety of ways they can provide value (p. 110).He identifies the following(a) as the possible ways in which associations create value to the customer component to process / reanimate information almost a brand generating a reason to buy, and creating positive attitudes / feelings. 2. 3 Brand Associations and Value of harvest-times Model Brand associations help consumers test the value of a product. For example, country of origin influences consumers in making judgements as to whether a product is of value or not. Consumers tend to require broa d but fairly vague stereotypes about specific countries and specific brands that they judge best.For example, French perfume, Italian leather, Japanese electronics and so on (Cateora, 1996 p. 349). victimization the example of country of origin as a basis forjudging value of products, a influence for brand associations and consumer perceptions of value of products can be depicted schematically as in the following diagram ( go steady 1) Associations growth attributes Relative price Use / employment User / Customer Celebrity / Person Life Style/Personality Competitions Country of Origin Value Process / ring Information Reason-to-buy Create Positive attitudes Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of the effects of brand association on perceived value. 8 The model shows that a product is of value to the customer and hence it can be bought to satisfy a need depending on its attributes, its use, or whether it can be associated with a particular customer group. Similarly, a consume r will compute a product as being valuable if he/she can associate it with a certain celebrity, lifestyle or country of origin. Proponents of brand positioning suggest that brands should develop distinct images and that these images will attract specific consumer segment (Hoek, et al, 2000).Consequently, the consumer segment will see the brand as being valuable to them. How do marketers determine the brand associations that convey the value of a brand to the consumer? Association search (research on brand associations) is important to marketers since they would want to gain an insightful picture of how a brand is perceived by consumers as well as its competitors. The techniques that hasten been utilized by firms to measure brand associations form part of the next section. 3. Measurement of Brand AssociationsOne of the key functions of brand steering is to keep one jump in the lead ofcompetitors by imprinting the brand firmly on the consumer psyche and keep it there (Emerald , 2000). A firm therefore requires instinct consumer perceptions of its brand(s) visa-avis those of competitors. This calls for the bar of brand associations. The techniques used to fall upon this objective can be sort out into two categories structured and structured techniques ( Aaker, 1991 number one & Lamb, 2000). less- 3. 1 Projective TechniquesThe central feature of all abideive techniques is the presentation otan am boastfuluous, unstructured object, activity, or person that a answering is asked to interpret and apologise (Aaker, et al, 1998). These writers argue that projective techniques are used when it is believed that respondents will not or cannot respond meaningfully to direct interrogative moods about (1) the reasons for certain behaviours or attitudes or (2) what the act ofbuying, owning, or using a brand means to them (p. 1 98). Respondents may be opposed or unable to reveal feelings, thoughts, and attitudes when asked direct questions for a number of rea sons.First, they may be unwilling because they feel the information is 9 embarrassing or private (Aaker, 1991 p 136). Alternatively, respondents may simply b unable to provide information as to why they buy certain items because they do not kno cover real reasons. Man of projective techniques busy in the measurement of brand associations are meant to scream problems aforementioned since they allow the respondent to project h self or him-self into a context, which bypasses the inhibitions, or limitations of more direct oppugn (Aaker, p. 136).The techniques involve focusing on a discussion upo the use experience, the decision process, the brand user, or off- the- wall perspectives such as considering the brand to be a person or an animal. Another characteristic of forcing out research is the use of ambiguous stimuli, wherein there is freedom to project experiences, attitudes, and perceptions. in that respect are many projective (indirect) approaches to sagacity brand associati ons. The usually used methods are word association, picture cessation, Thematic Apperception Tests, sentence completion, and story completion (Aaker, 1991 Kotler an Arm bullnecked, 1996 Aaker, et a 1998). 3. 2 Structured Approaches According to Aaker (1991), structured approaches involve scaling brands upon a set of dimensions. He argues that scaling approaches are more objective and reliable than qualitative approaches since they are less vulnerable to personal variant. scale consumer perceptions involves the determination of perceptual dimensions, identification of the target segment. and the interpretation ofthe brand profiles. The perceptual dimensions may include the product attributes and benefits, user ofthe brand, or relevant competitors (Day, et al, 1979).Scaling methods that marketers stimulate utilized include semantic derivative (Fry and Claxton, 1971), Likert scale leaf, conjoint analysis, and natural grouping (Aaker, 1991). 4. Research in Brand Associations Res earch use up in branding continues to be strong in the marketing literature (Alden, et, al, 1999 Kirmani, et al, 1999). Likewise, marketing managers continue to realize the power of brands unembellished in the recent efforts of many companies to build strong Internet brands such as amazon. com and msn. com (Narisetti, 1998).The way consumers perceive brand is a key determinant of coherent-term business concern consumer relationships. Hence, building strong brand perceptions is a top priority for many firms today (Morris. 1996). more of the studies involving brands own cerebrate on the product attributes or benefits. Aaker and Stayman (1991) conducted a conceive to test whether two brands of beer had established associations with their use contexts in terms of whether the consumers felt warm, brotherly, healthy, and wholesome in using the beers. They employed picture interpretation as a technique to earn their objective.The findings were that one brand ofbeer was associated with warm and friendly dimensions whereas the other brand was evaluated higher on healthy and wholesome. Hoek et al (2000) using qualitative interviews viewd the descriptive and evaluative attributes employed by consumers in choosing products of value to them. Their findings revealed that descriptive attributes determine the proportion of consumers who hold gilded attitudes about the brand. However, the findings did not provide experience on how descriptive attributes affect consumers behaviour.Although descriptive attributes could be predicted, the attributes had alone a flimsy relationship with usage behaviour and so provided brand managers with little guidance. Again, the study suggested that longitudinal work was required to examine whether over time, users of a product course of instruction who associate descriptive attributes with a brand they do not currently use eventually go on to purchase that brand. While many studies have focused product attributes, others have pu rsued the business concern of brand extensions (Keller, 1990 Smith and Park, 1992 Broniarczyk and Alba, 1994, Srinivas, et al, 1994).Others have tended to incubate on branding (Rooney, 1995) and brand preferences (Aireck and Settle, 1999). Studies that have focused specifically on brand associations are those of Kim and Chung (1997), Till (1998), and Chen (2001). Kim and Chung (1997) in their study on the effect of country of origin and the value ofa product place that the brand can convey either a positive or negative message about the product to the consumer on the basis of where it is made. Till (1998) attempted to identify how celebrity endorsers can be used effectively in advertising.Although the study did not focus on the effect of celebrity as 11 creating the value of a product, it shed light on how endorsers can be used to help consumers to retrieve information on a brand to buy (a value to the consumer). Ihe study by (Then (2001) may be regarded as one of the studies tha t were directly related to brand associations and how they create value of products. The purpose of the research was to identif the types of brand associations and to examine the relationship hetween association characteristics and brand equity.The findings revealed that there were two brand associations brands equity functional attribute and organizational attribute that contribute to a either low or high equity. 5. Critique of the Researches in Brand Associations selling researchers have not used unchanging definition or measurement technique to assess consumer perceptions of brands and the value they attach to such brands. Keller (1998) considers brand associations as consisting of brand image, brand knowledge, and brand awareness.He further says that brand associations include perceptions of brand quality and attitudes towards the brand, These constructs can be labelled as product attributes according to Kotler and Armstrong (1996). Yet Aaker (1991) clearly says that the con cepts relate to distinct categories of brand associations, each signifying a different grimace ofthe brand. He argues that a brand manager will be primarily interested in those associations that directly or indirectly affect buying behaviour and whether they are strong and overlap by many or weak and differ from person to person (p. 113).Keller and Aaker both appear to hypothesize those consumer perceptions ofbrands and hence associations are multi-dimensional, yet many of the dimensions they identify appear to be very similar. Furthermore, Aakers and Kellers conceptualisation of consumers psychological representation of brands have not been subjected to empirical validation. Consequently, it is difficult to determine ifthe various concepts they discuss, such as brand attitudes, perceived quality, and customer benefits are differentiate dimensions of brand associations (multi-dimensional) as they propose, or they are simply indicators of brand associations (uni-dimensional).The s econd critical review levelled against studies on brand associations is the measurement techniques employed. Many of the methods used such as the projective techniques tend to be more subjective and employ small samples (Aaker, 1991). Even those that are 12 regarded as being objective and reliable than qualitative approaches i. e. , scaling methods face roofing tile problem of validity. Aaker (1991) observes that there is always a concern with the validity of the scaling task. hobo a respondent actually position beers on an aged a long time dimension?He observes that there is the possibility ofunfamiliaritv with one or more of the brands, The other problem is that the respondent may be unable to understand operationally what aged means, or how to evaluate a brand on this dimension (p. 151). Thus any ambiguity in the scale or inability of a respondent to use the scale will affect validity and reliability ofthe results. The measurement of brand associations needs to be do wit. h re spect to a specified segment within the context of a competitive set of brands. This implies that brand associations and consumer perceptions of value ofproducts should be done for one segment.However, much of the time the scaling task should be done for multiple segments (Aaker, 1991). The implication here is that any relevant segment delineate by age, income, usage rate will have different perceptions from others. Marketers may not only be interested in the associations with the brand but also with the association strength, that is, how assured the consumers are about the associations with the brand. Similarly, the marketer may be interested in understanding whether the consumers have a clear image of the brand association.There is yet another criticism on studies on brand associations. There appears to be other rising constructs for brand associations. Aaker (1991) provides eleven types of brand associations, which Kotler and Armstrong (1996) consider to be part of the levels of a product. The question here is how significant these constructs are to a brand association measurement? Again, which associations severalise between buyers and nonbuyers? Lastly, the model used as a basis for identifying brand associations and how they create the value of products is itself questionable.Narisetti (1998) observes that technology plays a big role in brand associations and value of products. Where does technology fit in the model? Similarly, familiarity with a brand appears to moderate the dimensionality ofbrand associations. Where can this aspect be shown in the model? 13 6. Future Research Directions There is growing importance ol brands and consumer perceptions ot brands among marketing researchers. To divvy up this issue, marketers need to develop extensive conceptual treatments of brand and associations and related issues.To achieve this objective, it is self-asserting for the marketers to design practical measurement of the constructs. number of studies t hat attempt to measure some aspect of consumer brand associations do not use consistent measurement techniques. Again, there is need to use methods that help in knifelike between brands. Indeed, Aaker (1991) argues that a major regard is whether the perceptual dimensions discriminate between brands. Ifa measurement technique can be developed to help an attribute to discriminate, i. e.. set one brand off against another, it might be worth.He posits that factor analysis may be a useful utensil in reducing a set of factors (associations) to a few factors or dimensions by combining the words or phrases whose meanings are similar (p. 149). Secondly, the empirical works operationally brand associations as uni-dimensional. Yet conceptual models depict the brand associations as multi-dimensional (Keller and Aaker, 1997). Third, marketers need to employ multiple segments in mensuration the usefulness of brand associations in service of process consumers on the choice of products As note d earlier, any relevant segment defined by age, lifestyle, or user placement may well have different erceptions from others. For example, the user and nonuser groups quite often differ in their brand perceptions (Aaker, 1991, p. 151). Lastly, may of the studies have focused on consumer goods Specifically, many have been carried among fast-moving consumer goods (brands with short consumption cycles that are tvpicafly bought from supermarkets) (Hoek, et al, 2000). There is need to focus on industrial goods or on services. It is therefore proposed that a research aimed at identifying the brand associations of industrial goods or services would be more beneficial to academicians and practitioners. 4 REFERENCES Aaker, D. 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